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Subjects | Fact sheet | Samples
Sport and leisure interests: Sample articles
aikido
Japanese art of self-defence (Budo or 'martial way'), one of the martial arts; it was created by Morihei Ueshiba (1883–1969). Many of the twisting and throwing techniques of aikido are derived from the samurai skills of jujitsu, while the striking techniques made with the open palm are similar to those used in karate.
The central principle is that of aiki, or harmony of ki (which may approximately be translated as 'energy'). This can be interpreted physically, in the sense that force is never opposed by force (attacks are met with throws and immobilizations based on circular movements, to return the attacker's own force), and also morally, in that its ethos is essentially nonviolent and noncompetitive. Two main systems of aikido are uyeshiba, which is primarily defensive, and tomiki, which has developed into a competitive sport.
Like other forms of Japanese Budo, aikido lays great stress on ethical development. Ueshiba wrote: 'I want considerate people to listen to the voice of aikido. It is not for correcting others; it is for correcting your own mind.' Ueshiba was for many years a leading disciple in a Shinto sect, and aikido has inherited some of the mystical concepts of Shintoism, although there is no formal connection with any religion. The present Doahu, or hereditary 'head of the way', is the founder's son Kisshomaru Ueshiba (1921– ), who directs the Aikikai Foundation, founded 1948 to promote aikido throughout the world.
curling
Game played on ice with stones; sometimes described as 'bowls on ice'. One of the national games of Scotland, it has spread to many countries. It can also be played on artificial (cement or tarmacadam) ponds. At the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, curling was included as a medal event for the first time. In 1998 and 1992 it had been a demonstration event. At Nagano, the inaugural men's and women's titles were won by Switzerland and Canada respectively.
Two tees are erected about 35 m/38 yd apart. There are two teams of four players. The object of the game is to deliver the stones near the tee, those nearest scoring. Each player has two stones, of equal size, fitted with a handle. The usual weight of the stone (a thick, disclike object), is about 16–20 kg/36–42 lb. In Canada, the weight is greater (about 27 kg/60 lb) and iron replaces stone. The stone is slid on one of its flat surfaces and it may be curled in one direction or another according to the twist given as it leaves the hand. The match is played for an agreed number of heads or shots, or by time. The first world championship for men was held in 1959 and in 1979 for women.
gliding
The art of using air currents to fly unpowered aircraft. Technically, gliding involves the gradual loss of altitude; gliders designed for soaring flight (utilizing air rising up a cliff face or hill, warm air rising as a thermal above sun-heated ground, and so on) are known as sailplanes.
Soaring
There are three main methods of gaining height after launch: air currents, thermals, and thunderstorms. Air currents follow the contours of the land below them, and though in relation to the air itself the sailplane is losing height, the wind blowing up the side of a hill may enable it to gain more height than it is losing. By circling in a thermal, the glider can soar upwards for many hundreds of metres. By using the ascending currents in or near thunderstorms even greater heights can be attained.
Long cross-country flights
These are usually accomplished by the use of thermals. The glider first gains height in a thermal, then glides, gradually losing height, to the next thermal, where the process is repeated. By this method, which requires great skill and judgement of weather conditions, sailplanes may fly several hundred kilometres.
Launching
A sailplane must be given an intitial impetus by an external force in order for it to reach a speed sufficient to keep it in the air. Launching may be by rubber catapult from a hilltop (in the UK, the only remaining site for catapult launches is Long Mynd in Shropshire), by aircraft tow (the towing cable is released by the glider pilot when sufficient height has been gained), or by winch launching where the glider is attached to a winch with a reel of wire (when the wire is retracted the glider is launched like a kite). Once in the air, speed is maintained by depressing the nose and thus losing height in relation to the surrounding air.
History
Gliding played an important part in the development of flight. Pioneers include George Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, Octave Chanute (1832–1910), and the Wright brothers, the last-named perfecting gliding technique in 1902.
Because of the ban on military flying, gliding made great progress in Germany between the two world wars. In World War II, towed gliders were used by the Germans in Crete and the Allies at Arnhem, the Netherlands, to provide additional carrying capacity for troops and equipment. These transport gliders were expendable and could be landed in open country away from airfields, and the troops required no special training such as is necessary for parachutists.
The height record of 14,102 m/46,266 ft was established on 17 February 1986 in California by R R Harris, and the distance record of 1,460.8 km/907.7 mi on 25 April 1972 by H W Grosse.
The sport of hang-gliding was developed in the 1970s.
golf
Outdoor game in which a small rubber-cored ball is hit with a wooden- or iron-faced club into a series of holes using the least number of shots. On the first shot for each hole, the ball is hit from a tee, which elevates the ball slightly off the ground; subsequent strokes are played off the ground. Most courses have 18 holes and are approximately 5,500 m/6,000 yd in length. Golf developed in Scotland in the 15th century.
The hole
Each hole is made up of distinct areas: the tee, from where players start at each hole; the green, a finely manicured area where the hole is located; the fairway, the grassed area between the tee and the green, not cut as finely as the green; and the rough, the perimeter of the fairway, which is left to grow naturally. Natural hazards such as trees, bushes, and streams make play more difficult, and there are additional hazards in the form of sand-filled bunkers and artificial lakes.
Clubs
Clubs consist of woods and irons, and are numbered according to the angle at which the face of the club is set (the higher the number, the more acute the angle; clubs with a straight face send the ball the furthest). Most players also carry a wedge, a faced iron set at a sharp acute angle with a deep flange, this being ideal for bunker play. All carry a putter for holing out on the greens; this is the only club that has a wide variety of shapes to suit individual styles.
Stroke and match play
Golf is played in two principal forms: stroke play (also known as medal play) and match play. In stroke play the lowest aggregate score for a round determines the winner. Play may be more than one round, in which case the aggregate score for all rounds counts. In match play, the object is to win holes by scoring less than one's opponent(s).
Handicaps
Golf's handicap system allows for golfers of all levels to compete on equal terms. Players are handicapped according to the number of strokes they take for a round; for example, a player who took 83 shots to go round a course with a par (standard score) of 71 would be given a handicap of 12. Handicapping enables players of different standards to compete on even terms by conceding or receiving strokes. In all championships and in all major tournaments, however, competitors play level.
Competitions
The major golfing events are the British Open (first held in 1860), US Open (first held 1895), US Masters (first held in 1934), and US Professional Golfers Association (PGA) (first held in 1916). Other events include the World Match Play Championship, and the British PGA. The Alfred Dunhill Cup, a men's knockout tournament for international teams of three players, has been held annually at St Andrew's, Scotland, since 1985. A men's World Cup for teams of two has been played annually since 1953. The Ryder Cup, established in 1927, is played every two years between 12-man teams from the USA and Europe. A women's version of the Ryder Cup, the Solheim Cup, was introduced in 1990.
History
The name 'golf' is almost certainly derived from the German kolbe, meaning club. It was also called goff and in vulgar Scots gowff. Games of club and ball were common to all countries, and at their simplest consisted in trying to hit a ball furthest with a single stroke (as in the very early version of the French game pall-mall). The next development was to try to cover a much longer distance in the fewest possible strokes (as in the Flemish game chole). Another variant was a test of accuracy, the ball having to strike a mark (as in the Dutch game kolven). It was, however, the Scottish game that became the basis of modern golf, combining distance-hitting with the test of aiming the ball into a hole, and the essential idea of the independent progress of the contestants, each playing free from any interference by their opponent.
The links at Leith
Up to the middle of the 18th century the emphasis was still on hitting for distance. The original links (coastal golf course) at Leith, at that time the metropolis of the golfing world, had only five holes, at distances varying from 379 to 453 m (414 to 495 yds). Three 'turns' of the five holes constituted the accepted 'round'. Players had to put up with any natural roughness of the 'lies' in which the ball came to rest, and even the putting greens were kept short only by rabbits.
The first golf clubs
The offer of trophies for annual competitions at various golf centres led to the formation of the first properly constituted clubs, the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers in 1744, the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1754, the Royal Blackheath Golf Club in 1766, and the Royal Musselburgh Golf Club in 1774. These clubs gradually accepted a vague responsibility for looking after the condition of the links over which their members played. The deterioration of the Leith links and the growing fame of St Andrews brought about the universal imitation of the St Andrews round of 18 holes of widely varied lengths.
Development of the ball
The introduction of balls of gutta-percha in 1848 greatly increased the popularity of the game, for 'gutties' cost less than a third of the price of the leather balls stuffed with feathers which they superseded. Their greater durability also made possible the use of iron-headed clubs for strokes up to the green, while their more regular shape allowed greater accuracy when putting. The invention of the rubber-cored ball in 1902 greatly increased the distance over which the ball could be struck, and so necessitated greater care in the design and preparation of the playing ground.
Expansion of the game
By the second half of the 19th century, Scottish emigrants had introduced golf to all parts of the British Empire and the USA. New Zealand's first club was at Otago in 1871, Canada's at Montreal in 1873, and Australia's at Sydney in 1882. The first club in the USA was St Andrews, New York in 1888. Golf became truly international with the establishment of clubs in France in 1857, Belgium in 1888, Switzerland in 1892, Spain in 1891, Holland in 1893, Germany in 1895, Russia in 1895, Italy in 1898, Austria in 1901, Sweden in 1902, Japan in 1903, and Denmark in 1908. Golf is now so popular all over the world that, despite the opening of new courses every week, there are not enough to meet the demand, and waiting lists to become a member of a club can last several years.
marathon
Athletics endurance race over 42.195 km/26 mi 385 yd. It was first included in the Olympic Games in Athens in 1896. The distance varied until it was standardized in 1924. More recently, races have been opened to wider participation, including social runners as well as those competing at senior level.
The marathon derives its name from the story of Pheidippides, a Greek soldier who ran the distance of approximately 39 km/24 mi from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens with the news of a Greek victory over the Persians in 490 BC.
The current marathon distance was first used at the 1908 Olympic Games when the race was increased by an extra 385 yards from the 26 miles (the distance from Windsor to London) so that the race would finish in front of the royal box at the White City stadium. Leading marathons include the Boston Marathon (1897), New York Marathon (1970), Chicago Marathon (1977), and London Marathon (1981). In the 1980s, half marathons, over a distance of 21 km/13 mi 192.5 yd, became popular.
Olympic Games
Sporting contests originally held in Olympia, ancient Greece, every four years during a sacred truce; records were kept from 776 BC. Women were forbidden to be present, and the male contestants were naked. The ancient Games were abolished in AD 394. The present-day games have been held every four years since 1896. Since 1924 there has been a separate winter Games programme; since 1994 the winter and summer Games have been held two years apart.
The modern Games
The first modern Games were held in Athens, Greece. They were revived by Frenchman Pierre de Fredi, Baron de Coubertin (1863–1937), and have been held every four years with the exception of 1916, 1940, and 1944, when the two world wars intervened. Special tenth-anniversary Games were held in Athens in 1906. At the first revived Games, 245 competitors represented 14 nations in nine sports. At Atlanta in 1996, over 10,000 athletes represented 197 nations in 29 sports. Athens, host to the first modern Olympic games in 1896, was in 1997 chosen as the venue for the 2004 Games.
The ancient Games
Of all the many Games held in Ancient Greece, the Olympic were the oldest and most famous. Claims that certain mythical or even historical characters 'founded' the Olympic Games cannot be taken seriously. The Games were not suddenly established, but evolved from simple religious ceremonies to become the most grandiose sports festival of antiquity. Thus the origin of the Olympic Games is lost in obscurity, though evidence from excavations suggests that the sanctuary at Olympia dates from at least the 13th century BC.
The first historical mention of the Games at Olympia dates from 776 BC, when a cook named Coroebus from Elis won the 'dromos', a sprint race one length of the stadium, and from this year also dates the four-year period or Olympiad – the interval at which the Games were held.
Events
The Games expanded over the centuries to include more varied events. In 724 BC the 'diaulos', 2 stadium lengths, was added; in 720 BC the 'dolichos' was added – 24 lengths of the arena (comparable to the modern 5,000-metre race). All of these races on foot were run up and down, not around, the arena.
Boxing, chariot races, the pancratium (a mixture of boxing and wrestling) were added in the 7th century BC, and at various times the following other events were held at Olympia: pentathlon (long jump, discus, javelin, running, and wrestling), boys' events, and events for armed soldiers, heralds, and trumpeters. In addition to these sporting events, artists and sculptors exhibited their works and poets recited their poems. Not every event would be included at each celebration.
Development
At first the games occupied one day only, but were later extended over 5 days, the final day being devoted to the presentation of prizes (at first a garland), a closing ceremony, and a banquet. The games were also restricted to 'freeborn' Greeks – slaves and foreign competitors were barred, as were women. In the beginning what may be termed an 'amateur' spirit prevailed, but in time professionalism crept in, as eventually considerable money prizes were provided, and the Olympic champion was a national hero, receiving adulation and large material benefits.
snooker
Indoor game derived from billiards (via pool). It is played with 22 balls: 15 red, one each of yellow, green, brown, blue, pink,
and black, and one white cueball. A tapered pole (cue) is used to move the balls across the table. Red balls are worth one point when sunk, while the coloured balls have ascending values from two points for the yellow to seven points for the black. The world professional championship was first held in 1927. The world amateur championship was first held in 1963. A snooker World Cup team event was inaugurated at Bangkok, Thailand, in 1996. The International Olympic Committee recognized snooker as an Olympic sport in 1998; snooker is likely to make its Olympic debut at the Athens games in 2004.
The game was invented by British army officers serving with the Devonshire Regiment in Jubbulpore, India, in 1875 and derived from the game of black pool. It did not gain popularity until the 1920s when Joe Davis introduced new techniques. Since then it has become one of the biggest television sports in the UK and is gaining popularity across Europe, the Far East, and North America. A season-long series of ranking and invitational tournaments culminates in the World Professional Championship at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield, England, every April. A women's World Open Championship was introduced in 1976, and has been staged annually since 1980. In January 1999, teams from England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland competed in the inaugural Nations Cup snooker tournament at Newcastle, England. Wales defeated Scotland 6–4 in the final.
wakeboarding
Recreational and competitive water sport in which a person is pulled across the surface of the water on a wakeboard, usually about 1.2 m/4 ft long and 0.6 m/2 ft across the middle, by means of an tow rope attached to a speedboat. The wakeboarder, whose feet are strapped to the board with bindings, zigzags across the 'wake' (the ramp of water created by the pulling boat), and uses props such as take-off platforms to execute jumps, flips, and other manoeuvres.
Some wakeboarding manoeuvres are similar to those performed in barefoot and freestyle water-skiing, but others are derived from surfing, snowboarding, and skateboarding. In the 1990s wakeboarding was one of the world's fastest growing water sports. A World Cup series is held every year, and wakeboarding is one of the main events at the X-Games, the annual festival of so-called extreme or alternative sports.
Wakeboarding originated in the USA in the 1980s, evolving from the occasional practice of surfboard water skiing. Its principal pioneers were Tony Finn, a Californian surfer, who introduced the first manufactured wakeboard, the Skurfer, in 1985–86, and Jimmy Redmon, from Austin, Texas, who as well as founding the World Wakeboard Association in 1989, made many important innovations in wakeboard design.
The World Wakeboarding Association holds an annual World Championship, and the World Wakeboard Council of the International Water Ski Federation (recognized by the International Olympic Committee as the international governing body for the sport) held their rival world championships for the first time in September 2000.
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